Rishonim and Acharonim

The well-known division of the Oral Torah from the time of the Mishnah onward includes the following eras: Tannaim (sages of the Mishnah), Amoraim (sages of the Gemara), Savoraim, Geonim, Rishonim, and Acharonim. The Rishonim and Acharonim are the sages who lived and wrote after the era of the Geonim.

These scholars dealt with all areas of Torah: biblical interpretation, halachic rulings, responsa (she’elot u’teshuvot), Jewish thought, and more. However, the titles Rishonim and Acharonim are most commonly associated with their commentaries on the Talmud (Shas) and their halachic literature.

The era of the Rishonim is generally dated from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The transition from the time of the Geonim to the Rishonim came in response to the decline of the Jewish community in Babylonia—home to most of the Geonim—and the migration of many communities to Ashkenaz (Germany, France, and Italy) and Sefarad (Spain and North Africa).

Over time, two major centers of halachic and interpretive creativity developed: Ashkenaz and Sefarad. Notable Rishonim from Ashkenaz include Rashi and the Ba’alei HaTosafot (authors of the Tosafot), and from Sefarad, figures such as the Rambam (Maimonides) and the Ramban (Nachmanides).

A study of Rishonim reveals that they did not operate in isolation; rather, they were part of larger circles of scholarship and often responded to or referenced each other’s work. For example, the Tosafot frequently comment on Rashi’s explanations (referring to him as “the Kuntres”), and the Ritva (a Sefardic Rishon) often refers to the Ramban and to the Tosafot.

In the standard Vilna edition of the Talmud, many commentaries of the Rishonim appear printed on the page: Rashi and Tosafot, Rabbeinu Chananel (R”Ch), Rabbeinu Gershom Me’or HaGolah (R”GMaH) and others.

The Acharonim are the rabbis who continued halachic decision-making and Talmudic commentary after the period of the Rishonim. Historically, the Acharonim are dated from the 16th century through the present day.

Several key developments marked the shift from the Rishonim to the Acharonim:

• The invention of the printing press
• The expulsion of Jews from Spain
• The Black Death, which led to the deaths of millions in Ashkenazic lands
• The composition of the Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Yosef Karo in the 16th century

This period also saw the rise in prominence of the pilpul method—a unique approach to Talmud study. Although its roots can be found in the Tosafot (themselves Rishonim), pilpul was significantly developed during the time of the Acharonim, particularly in Ashkenaz. This method is characterized by deep and sharp theoretical reasoning, often disconnected from practical halachic application or real-world considerations.

Notable Acharonim who used this method include Rabbi Aryeh Leib Heller (author of Ketzot HaChoshen) and Rabbi Chaim of Brisk, who developed the Brisker method (derech Brisk).

One example of an Acharon’s work printed on the Vilna page is the Gilyon HaShas, a collection of marginal notes on Talmudic passages written by Rabbi Akiva Eiger in the early 19th century.

There are two common approaches to Talmud study: bekiyut and iyun.

Bekiyut is the study of the straightforward meaning (peshat) of the Gemara, typically at a relatively fast pace and without in-depth analysis. The purpose of bekiyut study is often to cover a lot of Talmudic ground in order to have breadth of familiarity with its content and style. It is usually done with the commentary of Rashi, and sometimes the Tosafot. For example, the Daf Yomi program is a classic example of bekiyut learning.

Iyun, by contrast, is in-depth study of the Gemara. It proceeds at a slower pace—covering just a few pages of Gemara over the course of months—and involves posing questions and exploring answers in detail. The purpose of iyun study is often to gain sophisticated conceptual understanding of the sugyot in the Gemara and its subsequent interpretive tradition. This method typically includes study of the Rishonim and Acharonim. The classic iyun method begins with a close reading of the sugya (Talmudic discussion), followed by the Rishonim on that sugya, and then the Acharonim.

Rashi and Tosafot
Rashi and Tosafot are likely the best-known Rishonim in the context of Talmud study. A separate entry on our site is dedicated to them—see “Rashi and Tosafot.”

Rabbeinu Gershom Me’or HaGolah
Rabbeinu Gershom lived in Ashkenaz from the late 10th to early 11th century. He wrote Talmud commentaries, responsa, liturgical poems, and more. He is especially known for enacting communal regulations such as prohibiting polygamy and forbidding the divorce of a woman without her consent. His commentary appears on several tractates in the Vilna edition of the Talmud.

Rif
Rabbi Yitzchak ben Yaakov Alfasi was born in North Africa in 1038. Like the Rambam, the Rif is considered one of the greatest halachic authorities among the Rishonim and one of the three foundational halachic pillars of the Shulchan Aruch. His key work is Hilchot Rav Alfas, also known as the “small Shas” (Shas Katan). His unique style involved quoting the Gemara directly but condensed to its halachic essence, with explanations and final rulings. This work covers 24 tractates from the orders of Moed, Nashim, and Nezikin, and is printed in most full editions of the Talmud.

Rambam (Maimonides)
Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon was born in Spain in 1138 and later moved to the Land of Israel and Egypt, where he died. The Rambam is considered one of the greatest rabbis of all time—an outstanding halachic authority, philosopher, and physician.

He authored the Mishneh Torah (also known as Yad HaChazakah), a comprehensive and revolutionary halachic work notable for its orderly structure, clear language, and inclusion of laws not applicable in his time (such as those related to the Temple). The Rambam is one of the three primary halachic authorities on whom Rabbi Yosef Karo based the Shulchan Aruch. He also wrote numerous other significant works, including his commentary on the Mishnah, Sefer HaMitzvot, responsa, and philosophical texts such as Moreh Nevuchim (Guide for the Perplexed).

Ramban (Nachmanides)
Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman was born in Spain in the early 13th century. He famously participated in a public disputation with  Christian clergymen. Although the event concluded respectfully, the Ramban had to leave Spain a couple of years later and settled in the Land of Israel. He was one of the most important Sefardic scholars, known for his commentaries on the Torah and the Talmud. He was also a poet, kabbalist, Jewish thinker, and physician. His writings include additions to the Rif’s rulings, Talmudic chiddushim (innovative insights), and philosophical works such as Derashot HaRamban.

Maran Rabbi Yosef Karo
Rabbi Yosef Karo was born in 15th-century Spain and later lived in Portugal, Greece, and finally the Land of Israel. Known as Maran (“our master”), he authored the Shulchan Aruch, which is regarded as the most important halachic work and, alongside the Mapah (to be discussed below), the most influential in shaping Jewish law to this day. The Shulchan Aruch is based on the earlier Arba’ah Turim, and halachically grounded in the works of the Rambam, Rif, and Rosh. Rabbi Yosef Karo also authored other significant works such as Beit Yosef and Kesef Mishneh, most of which deal with halacha.

Rabbi Moshe Isserles – The Rema
Rabbi Moshe Isserles lived in 16th-century Poland and is considered the foremost Ashkenazi halachic authority of his time. He is best known for his work HaMapah, which serves as an Ashkenazi gloss on the Shulchan Aruch, incorporating Ashkenazi customs and rulings into the Sephardic-based code. In addition to his halachic role, the Rema was also a kabbalist and engaged with philosophy.

Rabbi Aryeh Leib Heller – The Ketzot HaChoshen
Rabbi Aryeh Leib Heller, known by the title of his work Ketzot HaChoshen, lived in 18th-century Galicia. He was known as a brilliant and sharp halachic thinker. His primary work is a deep, analytical commentary on Choshen Mishpat, the section of Shulchan Aruch dealing with civil law. Though it sits on the structure of the Shulchan Aruch, Ketzot HaChoshen dives into complex halachic analysis, comparing and challenging the views of earlier and later authorities. It is a staple of advanced Talmudic study today.

Rabbi Akiva Eiger
Rabbi Akiva Eiger was born in 1761 in Hungary and is considered a symbol of sharp and analytical Torah learning. His major works include responsa (some published posthumously by his students), as well as Talmudic novellae and marginal notes on the Talmud known as Gilyon HaShas.
(For more on Gilyon HaShas, see our post: “What Are All Those Symbols Inside the Gemara?”)

Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik of Brisk – Rav Chaim Brisker
Rabbi Chaim haLevi Soloveitchik was born in Volozhin in 1853. He authored innovative commentaries on the Rambam and on the Talmud, and is regarded as the founder of the “Brisker method” of Talmud study. This approach is known for its analytical style and the use of conceptual categories (such as cheftza vs. gavra) to dissect halachic ideas. It also places special focus on the Rambam’s works and the in-depth study of Seder Kodashim—a tractate often less emphasized in other methods of study.

This post is part of Hadran’s educational series, helping you navigate and understand Talmudic concepts. Click here for more explorations into the world of Talmud.

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